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<a href="./Home">MLton 20130715</a>
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<div id="header">
<h1>ObjectOrientedProgramming</h1>
</div>
<div id="content">
<div id="preamble">
<div class="sectionbody">
<div class="paragraph"><p><a href="StandardML">Standard ML</a> does not have explicit support for
object-oriented programming.  Here are some papers that show how to
express certain object-oriented concepts in SML.</p></div>
<div class="ulist"><ul>
<li>
<p>
<a href="References#Berthomieu00"> OO Programming styles in ML</a>
</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>
<a href="References#ThorupTofte94"> Object-oriented programming and Standard ML</a>
</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>
<a href="References#LarsenNiss04"> mGTK: An SML binding of Gtk+</a>
</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>
<a href="References#FluetPucella02"> Phantom Types and Subtyping</a>
</p>
</li>
</ul></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>The question of OO programming in SML comes up every now and then.
The following discusses a simple object-oriented (OO) programming
technique in Standard ML.  The reader is assumed to be able to read
Java and SML code.</p></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect1">
<h2 id="_motivation">Motivation</h2>
<div class="sectionbody">
<div class="paragraph"><p>SML doesn&#8217;t provide subtyping, but it does provide parametric
polymorphism, which can be used to encode some forms of subtyping.
Most articles on OO programming in SML concentrate on such encoding
techniques.  While those techniques are interesting&#8201;&#8212;&#8201;and it is
recommended to read such articles&#8201;&#8212;&#8201;and sometimes useful, it seems
that basically all OO gurus agree that (deep) subtyping (or
inheritance) hierarchies aren&#8217;t as practical as they were thought to
be in the early OO days.  "Good", flexible, "OO" designs tend to have
a flat structure</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content monospaced">
<pre>         Interface
             ^
             |
- - -+-------+-------+- - -
     |       |       |
   ImplA   ImplB   ImplC</pre>
</div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>and deep inheritance hierarchies</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content monospaced">
<pre>ClassA
  ^
  |
ClassB
  ^
  |
ClassC
  ^
  |</pre>
</div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>tend to be signs of design mistakes.  There are good underlying
reasons for this, but a thorough discussion is not in the scope of
this article.  However, the point is that perhaps the encoding of
subtyping is not as important as one might believe.  In the following
we ignore subtyping and rather concentrate on a very simple and basic
dynamic dispatch technique.</p></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect1">
<h2 id="_dynamic_dispatch_using_a_recursive_record_of_functions">Dynamic Dispatch Using a Recursive Record of Functions</h2>
<div class="sectionbody">
<div class="paragraph"><p>Quite simply, the basic idea is to implement a "virtual function
table" using a record that is wrapped inside a (possibly recursive)
datatype.  Let&#8217;s first take a look at a simple concrete example.</p></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>Consider the following Java interface:</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content monospaced">
<pre>public interface Counter {
  public void inc();
  public int get();
}</pre>
</div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>We can translate the <span class="monospaced">Counter</span> interface to SML as follows:</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">datatype</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">counter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">Counter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">of</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="n">inc</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">unit</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">-&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">unit</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">get</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">unit</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">-&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">int</span><span class="p">}</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>Each value of type <span class="monospaced">counter</span> can be thought of as an object that
responds to two messages <span class="monospaced">inc</span> and <span class="monospaced">get</span>.  To actually send messages
to a counter, it is useful to define auxiliary functions</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">local</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">fun</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">mk</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Counter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">in</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">cGet</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">mk</span><span class="p">#</span><span class="n">get</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">cInc</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">mk</span><span class="p">#</span><span class="n">inc</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">end</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>that basically extract the "function table" <span class="monospaced">t</span> from a counter object
and then select the specified method <span class="monospaced">m</span> from the table.</p></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>Let&#8217;s then implement a simple function that increments a counter until a
given maximum is reached:</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">fun</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">incUpto</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">counter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">max</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">while</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">cGet</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">counter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&lt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">max</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">do</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">cInc</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">counter</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>You can easily verify that the above code compiles even without any
concrete implementation of a counter, thus it is clear that it doesn&#8217;t
depend on a particular counter implementation.</p></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>Let&#8217;s then implement a couple of counters.  First consider the
following Java class implementing the <span class="monospaced">Counter</span> interface given earlier.</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content monospaced">
<pre>public class BasicCounter implements Counter {
  private int cnt;
  public BasicCounter(int initialCnt) { this.cnt = initialCnt; }
  public void inc() { this.cnt += 1; }
  public int get() { return this.cnt; }
}</pre>
</div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>We can translate the above to SML as follows:</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">fun</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">newBasicCounter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">initialCnt</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">let</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">       </span><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">cnt</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ref</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">initialCnt</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">    </span><span class="k">in</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">       </span><span class="n">Counter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="n">inc</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">fn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">cnt</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">:=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">!cnt</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">+</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">                </span><span class="n">get</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">fn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">!cnt</span><span class="p">}</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">    </span><span class="k">end</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>The SML function <span class="monospaced">newBasicCounter</span> can be described as a constructor
function for counter objects of the <span class="monospaced">BasicCounter</span> "class".  We can
also have other counter implementations.  Here is the constructor for
a counter decorator that logs messages:</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">fun</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">newLoggedCounter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">counter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">    </span><span class="n">Counter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="n">inc</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">fn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">print</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">&quot;inc</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">cInc</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">counter</span><span class="p">),</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">             </span><span class="n">get</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">fn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">print</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">&quot;get</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">cGet</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">counter</span><span class="p">)}</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>The <span class="monospaced">incUpto</span> function works just as well with objects of either
class:</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">aCounter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">newBasicCounter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">incUpto</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">aCounter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">print</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Int</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">toString</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cGet</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">aCounter</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">^</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"></span>

<span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">aCounter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">newLoggedCounter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">newBasicCounter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">incUpto</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">aCounter</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">print</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Int</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">toString</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cGet</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">aCounter</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">^</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>In general, a dynamic dispatch interface is represented as a record
type wrapped inside a datatype.  Each field of the record corresponds
to a public method or field of the object:</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">datatype</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">interface</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="n">Interface</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">of</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="n">method</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t1</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">-&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">                 </span><span class="n">immutableField</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">                 </span><span class="n">mutableField</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ref</span><span class="p">}</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>The reason for wrapping the record inside a datatype is that records,
in SML, can not be recursive.  However, SML datatypes can be
recursive.  A record wrapped in a datatype can contain fields that
contain the datatype.  For example, an interface such as <span class="monospaced">Cloneable</span></p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">datatype</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">cloneable</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">Cloneable</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">of</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="n">clone</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">unit</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">-&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">cloneable</span><span class="p">}</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>can be represented using recursive datatypes.</p></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>Like in OO languages, interfaces are abstract and can not be
instantiated to produce objects.  To be able to instantiate objects,
the constructors of a concrete class are needed.  In SML, we can
implement constructors as simple functions from arbitrary arguments to
values of the interface type.  Such a constructor function can
encapsulate arbitrary private state and functions using lexical
closure.  It is also easy to share implementations of methods between
two or more constructors.</p></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>While the <span class="monospaced">Counter</span> example is rather trivial, it should not be
difficult to see that this technique quite simply doesn&#8217;t require a huge
amount of extra verbiage and is more than usable in practice.</p></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect1">
<h2 id="_sml_modules_and_dynamic_dispatch">SML Modules and Dynamic Dispatch</h2>
<div class="sectionbody">
<div class="paragraph"><p>One might wonder about how SML modules and the dynamic dispatch
technique work together.  Let&#8217;s investigate!  Let&#8217;s use a simple
dispenser framework as a concrete example.  (Note that this isn&#8217;t
intended to be an introduction to the SML module system.)</p></div>
<div class="sect2">
<h3 id="_programming_with_sml_modules">Programming with SML Modules</h3>
<div class="paragraph"><p>Using SML signatures we can specify abstract data types (ADTs) such as
dispensers.  Here is a signature for an "abstract" functional (as
opposed to imperative) dispenser:</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">signature</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ABSTRACT_DISPENSER</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">sig</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">isEmpty</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">-&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">bool</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">push</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">*</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">-&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">-&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">*</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">option</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">end</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>The term "abstract" in the name of the signature refers to the fact that
the signature gives no way to instantiate a dispenser.  It has nothing to
do with the concept of abstract data types.</p></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>Using SML functors we can write "generic" algorithms that manipulate
dispensers of an unknown type.  Here are a couple of very simple
algorithms:</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">functor</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">DispenserAlgs</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ABSTRACT_DISPENSER</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">struct</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">open</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">D</span><span class="w"></span>

<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">fun</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">pushAll</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">xs</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">foldl</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">push</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">xs</span><span class="w"></span>

<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">fun</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">popAll</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">let</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">          </span><span class="k">fun</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">lp</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">xs</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">NONE</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">rev</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">xs</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">            </span><span class="p">|</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">lp</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">xs</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">SOME</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">lp</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x::xs</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">       </span><span class="k">in</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">          </span><span class="n">lp</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">([],</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">       </span><span class="k">end</span><span class="w"></span>

<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">fun</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">cp</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">from</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">to</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">pushAll</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">popAll</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">from</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">to</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">end</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>As one can easily verify, the above compiles even without any concrete
dispenser structure.  Functors essentially provide a form a static
dispatch that one can use to break compile-time dependencies.</p></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>We can also give a signature for a concrete dispenser</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">signature</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">DISPENSER</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">sig</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">include</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ABSTRACT_DISPENSER</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">empty</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">end</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>and write any number of concrete structures implementing the signature.
For example, we could implement stacks</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">structure</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">Stack</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">DISPENSER</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">struct</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">list</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">empty</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">[]</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">isEmpty</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">null</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">push</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">op</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">::</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">List</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">getItem</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">end</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>and queues</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">structure</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">Queue</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">DISPENSER</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">struct</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">datatype</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">T</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">of</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">list</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">*</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">list</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">empty</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">T</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">([],</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">[])</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">isEmpty</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">fn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">T</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">([],</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">_)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">true</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">|</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">_</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">false</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">normalize</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">fn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">([],</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ys</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">rev</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ys</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">[])</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">|</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">q</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">q</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">fun</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">push</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">T</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">xs</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ys</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">T</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">normalize</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">xs</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">y::ys</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">fn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">T</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x::xs</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ys</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">SOME</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">T</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">normalize</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">xs</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ys</span><span class="p">)))</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">|</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">_</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">NONE</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">end</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>One can now write code that uses either the <span class="monospaced">Stack</span> or the <span class="monospaced">Queue</span>
dispenser.  One can also instantiate the previously defined functor to
create functions for manipulating dispensers of a type:</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">structure</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">S</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">DispenserAlgs</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Stack</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">S</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">popAll</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">S</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">pushAll</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">],</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">Stack</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">empty</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="w"></span>

<span class="k">structure</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">Q</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">DispenserAlgs</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">Q</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">popAll</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Q</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">pushAll</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">],</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">empty</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>There is no dynamic dispatch involved at the module level in SML.  An
attempt to do dynamic dispatch</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">q</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">Q</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">push</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">Stack</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">empty</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>will give a type error.</p></div>
</div>
<div class="sect2">
<h3 id="_combining_sml_modules_and_dynamic_dispatch">Combining SML Modules and Dynamic Dispatch</h3>
<div class="paragraph"><p>Let&#8217;s then combine SML modules and the dynamic dispatch technique
introduced in this article.  First we define an interface for
dispensers:</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">structure</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">Dispenser</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">struct</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">datatype</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">      </span><span class="n">I</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">of</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="n">isEmpty</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">unit</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">-&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">bool</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">            </span><span class="n">push</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">-&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">            </span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">unit</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">-&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">*</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">&#39;a</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">option</span><span class="p">}</span><span class="w"></span>

<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">fun</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">O</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">I</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"></span>

<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">fun</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">isEmpty</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">O</span><span class="p">#</span><span class="n">isEmpty</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">fun</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">push</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">O</span><span class="p">#</span><span class="n">push</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">v</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">fun</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">O</span><span class="p">#</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">end</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>The <span class="monospaced">Dispenser</span> module, which we can think of as an interface for
dispensers, implements the <span class="monospaced">ABSTRACT_DISPENSER</span> signature using
the dynamic dispatch technique, but we leave the signature ascription
until later.</p></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>Then we define a <span class="monospaced">DispenserClass</span> functor that makes a "class" out of
a given dispenser module:</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">functor</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">DispenserClass</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">DISPENSER</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">DISPENSER</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">struct</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">open</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">Dispenser</span><span class="w"></span>

<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">fun</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">make</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">       </span><span class="n">I</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="n">isEmpty</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">fn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">D</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">isEmpty</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">          </span><span class="n">push</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">fn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">make</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">push</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)),</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">          </span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">fn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">                   </span><span class="k">case</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">D</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">of</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">                      </span><span class="n">NONE</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">NONE</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">                    </span><span class="p">|</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">SOME</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">SOME</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">make</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)}</span><span class="w"></span>

<span class="w">   </span><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">empty</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">       </span><span class="n">I</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="n">isEmpty</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">fn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">true</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">          </span><span class="n">push</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">fn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">x</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">make</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">push</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">D</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">empty</span><span class="p">)),</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="w">          </span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">fn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=&gt;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">NONE</span><span class="p">}</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">end</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>Finally we seal the <span class="monospaced">Dispenser</span> module:</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">structure</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">Dispenser</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ABSTRACT_DISPENSER</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">Dispenser</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>This isn&#8217;t necessary for type safety, because the unsealed <span class="monospaced">Dispenser</span>
module does not allow one to break encapsulation, but makes sure that
only the <span class="monospaced">DispenserClass</span> functor can create dispenser classes
(because the constructor <span class="monospaced">Dispenser.I</span> is no longer accessible).</p></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>Using the <span class="monospaced">DispenserClass</span> functor we can turn any concrete dispenser
module into a dispenser class:</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">structure</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">StackClass</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">DispenserClass</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Stack</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">structure</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">QueueClass</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">DispenserClass</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Queue</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>Each dispenser class implements the same dynamic dispatch interface
and the <span class="monospaced">ABSTRACT_DISPENSER</span> -signature.</p></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>Because the dynamic dispatch <span class="monospaced">Dispenser</span> module implements the
<span class="monospaced">ABSTRACT_DISPENSER</span>-signature, we can use it to instantiate the
<span class="monospaced">DispenserAlgs</span>-functor:</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">structure</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">D</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">DispenserAlgs</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Dispenser</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
<div class="paragraph"><p>The resulting <span class="monospaced">D</span> module, like the <span class="monospaced">Dispenser</span> module, works with
any dispenser class and uses dynamic dispatch:</p></div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">D</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">popAll</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">pushAll</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">],</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">StackClass</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">empty</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="w"></span>
<span class="k">val</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">D</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">popAll</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">D</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">pushAll</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">],</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">QueueClass</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">empty</span><span class="p">))</span><span class="w"></span>
</pre></div></div></div>
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